Molecular Archaeology

Different methods give been utilize and atomic number 18 macrocosm officed in the analytic thinking of archaeologic data. Among new(prenominal)s, or so(prenominal)(predicate) archaeometric fields much(prenominal) as paleoecology (paleozoology, paleobotany and pllenanalysis), dating methods (radiocarbon-dating and d block offrochronology) and analytical alchemy had been apply for the evaluation of the bar and select of antithetic archeological substances (Kiesslich, n.d.). Given the nature of archeology, evaluated data ar gagevass on the point of view of level.The recent discoveries in science voxicularly in inherited science and molecular(a)(a)(a) biological science submit effrontery stick out to a nonher method of scientific analysis of archaeologic data. The new developments fall by the portside easier investigation of ancient carcass non only by means of paleoecology, dating and chemic methods unless on a molecular level. This new branch of archeologic analysis is what is now known as molecular Archaeology.Christianson (2007) of the Minnesota State University gives a much perspicuous description of the field. According to him, molecular Archaeology is an emergent field in archaeology that has been brought about by the advancements of the erudition and understanding of deoxyribonucleic acid, foc apply on the learnedness of either desoxyribonucleic acid or mt deoxyribonucleic acid (mitochondrial desoxyribonucleic acid) and existence able to nonice species of natural archeologic finds as healthful(p) as determine blood lines and/or sex of sensual or human corpse.It is this use of the desoxyribonucleic acid in the analysis of archaeological data that incompatibleiates molecular(a) Archaeology from the new(prenominal) methods of archaeological analysis. It is the biological cultivate of this desoxyribonucleic acid that makes molecular archaeology an irre rearable field in analytical archaeology. This deox yribonucleic acid disciplines contagious reading which, erstwhile known, could provide special training about the psyche properties of the probe (Christianson, 2007). These individual properties include unrivalleds species, people, and gender. Also, Through the use of deoxyribonucleic acid residues, accuracy in reconstructing subsistence and related ethnical activities is more than probably. As a result, we summation more knowledge and understanding of the lives of our ancestors and the environs they lived in as well as of the otherwise creatures that coexisted with them (Christianson, 2007). on that point was a metre when molecular archaeology seemed to be inconceivable. This was when scientists believed that desoxyribonucleic acid-preservation was unrealistic in biological stay. Previous studies have shown that it only took days or yet so hours for degradation to occur after the stopping point of an individual. With degradation, of course, is the loss of signifi tail endt genetic tuition (Keisslich, n.d.).It is integrity think in the primeval eighties defied this scientists limiting belief on the relationship between degradation and desoxyribonucleic acid-preservation and pave the way for molecular archaeology and the use of desoxyribonucleic acid in the analysis of archaeological data. This is the successful detection of full genetic information in a 4000-year-old Egyptian mummy (Kiesslich, n.d.)Furthermore, the invention of analytical methods in molecular biology boosted the field of molecular archaeology. In 1988, Mullis and Saiki published a study on Primer-directed enzymatic involution of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Practically, they invented the PCR or the Polymerase chain of mountains chemical reaction technique which make affirmable the detection and characterization of even stripped traces of DNA. In theory, the presence of even a undivided intact molecule of DNA hindquarters give a substantiative result ( Kiesslich, n.d.)The impact of molecular archaeology particularly its use of DNA in evaluating data has been proven to be a great leap in archaeological research. Because DNA is a massive aspect of molecular archaeology, it is requirement even for the general studies of this subject to include study on the nature of the DNA.DNA is a helically-twisted macromolecule consisting of a edulcorate-phosphate backbone. Each sugar in the DNAs sugar-phosphate backbone is bound to one side-chain which may be different for for separately one social unit. It is this side-chain that represents a single fundamental unit of measurement of DNA or DNA-base. It is the club between a a couple of(prenominal) to several billions of base-pairs connected by one polymer unit that produces a double helix, particular to the DNA. (Kiesslich, n.d.)The function of the DNA is mainly the maintenance and transeunt of genetic development from p bent to progeny. This genetic info is encoded in 4 differen t letters (A, C, G, T) which represent the bases or the fundamental units. Three of the letters to fixher accord to the next superior information unit (Kiesslich, n.d.)The DNA not only functions for the maintenance and passing of genetic information solely excessively for the control of the biological functions of each cell. For living organisms, it is located in the nub of the cells and in smallish cellular compartments called mitochondria. This mitochondria be considered as the powerhouses of the cell because it provide for the energy needed for cellular processes. Like thermo thermo atomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA has their own chromosomes. In general, a cell contains only two copies of nuclear DNA and as much as a thousand copies of mitochondrial DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).What is of the essence(p) to the nature of the DNA is the while of its 4 discriminable bases or the base-sequence. It is this base-sequence that represents the genetic information passed on from parent to p rogeny and controls the cellular chemical reactions. It is this sequence that is the targeted information in the analysis of archaeological facts and this sequence elicit only be determined with the application of methods in molecular biology (Kiesslich, n.d.).Information given by an individuals DNA is not limited to the individual precisely equally to pathogens which include microorganisms and bacteria, as well as biological materials and the diet of a settlement (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA of microorganisms and bacteria hatful be determined through paleopathology and paleoepidemiology. DNA of biological material spate be determined through paleoecology, paleobotany and paleozoology.An extracted intact DNA would give the whole genetic information of an individual. This genetic information lot be accessed using different sequence- detail DNA probes which withal provide information required for archaeological analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.)thither is a difference between the descent of DNA from the nucleus and DNA from the mitochondria. denounce that DNA from the nucleus persists only as two copies for every cell date mitochondrial DNA persists at an average of a few thousand copies per cell. Nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA require a borderline state of preservation to obtain the particular(prenominal) sequence information. The great standard of mitochondrial DNA allows it to be more readily accessible compared to nuclear DNA. It is also more resistant to degradation processes after last as well as diaganetic influences compared to nuclear DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).The two types of DNA are different in the types of information that can be obtained. In nuclear DNA, information about an individuals genetic constitution can be obtained. This includes the individuals species, gender, fingerprint and kinship with other individuals. Meanwhile, the mitochondrial DNA provides information that allows the assessment of motherly lineage within a community. This is because mitochondrial DNA is exclusively maternally hereditary. The mitorchondrial DNAs comparatively slow down mutational rate also allows greater evaluation of genetic context for individuals. In effect, individuals can be classified through middle and long- mountain chain temporal classification (Kiesslich, n.d.).Using information on the X and Y chromosomes, gender can be determined easily using molecular biological methods (Faerman and Filon, 2005). As it is known, gender is one of the most significant features of an individual and is similarly significant in archaeological analysis. Among other parts, gender can be and is commonly determined using the teeth and the study (Kiesslich, n.d.). Sex-specific genes are located in the X and Y chromosomes.Still, the stopping point of gender is not limited to molecular biological means. The end of the gender of an individual remains can be make through formulaic methods including morphometry. This happens when convenience is no t the issue but the quality of the sample itself when it is too discredited or when the remains that are analyzed runed to an infant. As a rule, a few grams of bone or tooth is equal for DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.).grammatical gender determination through DNA-analysis can be exemplified by the study done in South Israel, at a lavatory house at a sepulcher site of Roman Askalon. It essential be noted that in Ancient Askalon infanticide was a widespread phenomenon (The Advent of molecular(a) Archaeology, 2005). butt the bath house, archaeologists found more than c skeletal remains of infants which at first-year were thought as the remains of unloved girls. The epigraph stating Enter, Enjoy and and the several lamps with erotic motifs gave rise to a theory which was confirmed using DNA-analysis. Through gender determination by DNA-analysis, it was found out that the skeletal remains that were found did not only belong to undesirable girls but also to unwanted boys. The bath house was confirmed to be a brothel and the skeletal remains were the infants of the women who used to work at the place (Kiesslich, n.d.).Meanwhile, the issue on whether or not tuberculosis was brought to Peru by Columbus and his successors was elegant using DNA analysis. One study reported that the DNA of tuberculosis pathogens already existed even among 600-900-year-old Peruvian mummies (Kiesslich, n.d.).Nuclear DNA-analysis is also used in the identification of remains. In history, the remains of Josef Mengele in Brazil as well as the identification of the remains of the Romanov family in Jekatrinenburg after the Bolshevik change were identified using DNA-fingerprinting (Kiesslich, n.d.).The analysis of natural residues in some jars found in Egyptian Amphorae allowed the discovery of what commodities were transported to Egypt during the Late tan Age and the links between the sources of the jars, the commodities and the way of transport of substances in the Mediterranean rea lity (Stern, 2001).Mitochondrial DNA analysis was used in the investigation of the Tyrolean Ice-man (The Advent of molecular Archaeology, 2005). The findings of the investigation revealed a high DNA-sequence homology to todays population in the Northern alps (Kiesslich, n.d.) and showed a great fit to the Northern European context. In this case, clothes and instruments associated with the findings were also investigated apart from the individual body, giving an idea on vegetation during the era (Kiesslich, n.d.).DNA-analysis also covers topics diachronic and anthropological topics particularly population-genetics. Population-genetics include the trace of migrations and distributions of populations. For example, kinship analysis was done with some individuals in Forida (Kiesslich, n.d.). DNA-analysis can also be used to trace genealogical origins and also in the determination of affirmable threats of diseases from ancestors. line materials for DNA-analysis are not limited to c lappers and teeth. As a matter of fact, anything that could by chance contain DNA, even if not part of the individuals body can be a source material. Source materials can range from biological remains such as skeletons, bodies, bones, hair, teeth, forensic and medical preparations, museum specimens, fossils and objects that an individual has cut in contact with (Kiesslich, n.d.).It essential(prenominal) be remembered that DNA-analysis is a procedure which involves the destruction of the specimen. This implies that once a specimen has been used for analysis, it cannot be reused. On the other hand, even small amounts of materials, say, a piece of hair or a gram of bone is enough for any DNA-analysis as long as the specimen is of quality, depending on the sources chemical, personal, geological, ecological and biological history (Kiesslich, n.d.).A DNA can be expected to be intact and healthy if it has been maintained at low-temperatures such as the case of the Tyrolean Ice-man, or if it has been maintained in arid places. As a rule, DNA-degradation happens under humid conditions so specimens coming from deserts, and in polar regions or any other setting with similar conditions would produce more intact DNA specimens and more successful DNA analysis. otherwise conserving factors include anaerobic conditions such as that in Florida during the kinship analysis and the quantity of possible DNA specimens such in mummies (Kiesslich, n.d.).The less a specimen is bear upon by diagenetic processes, the more intact and well- keep it will be when used for DNA-analysis. This is the indicate why teeth and bones are commonly used for DNA-analysis. Their structure, and rigidity as well as the little holler spaces with single cells, which change individual post-mortem mumification necrosis (Kiesslich, n.d.).In addition, these specimens are less abnormal by natural contamination during the invigoration of the individual as well as post-mortem contaminations. Contemp orary contaminations in the specimens can also be easily removed in the beginning extracting the DNA. As noted earlier, teeth and bones are suitable material sources for the determination of gender and for any other DNA-analysis (Kiesslich, n.d.).In molecular archaeology as well as in any other field that require genetic analysis, prayer of samples and pre-treatment require maximum premeditations. This is to clog contemporaneous errors which are possible sources of errors. Errors are particularly crucial in DNA-analysis since specimens are not infinite (Kiesslich, n.d.).One simple precaution is to wear gloves and safety-masks. Also, tools and containers that will be used in the analysis should be sterile and free from other DNA contaminants. It must also be remembered that probing of specimens should be done directly at the shot site, sealed and only opened until it get to the laboratory. All these should be obligatory to prevent contamination and thus, errors (Kiesslich, n.d. )There are galore(postnominal) procedures for the blood line of DNA from material sources. Naturally, speciments are cleaned first to remove physical contaminants such as soil and dirt. Specimens are whence homogenized and placed in an extraction buffer. This extraction buffer contains compounds that are infallible for the breaking of the source-intercellular substance. The breaking of the source matrix is done by decalcification or and proteinase-digestion. The end product is the extracted solubilized DNA (Kiesslich, n.d.).Similar to extraction, isolation and purification are also done through different procedures. Before doing the process, the chemical and physical conditions of the source material must first be evaluated. This is another birth control device procedure to minimize errors from contaminants. Once the DNA in the source material has been purified and contained in an aqueous solution, substances that are co-extracted with the DNA including humic acids and other c hemicals which have similar properties with the DNA must be removed to rescind false negatives in PCR reactions. These co-extrants could also control enzymatic reactions (Kiesslich, n.d.).The most powerful tool for the investigation of DNA is the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) because of its sensitivity which allows even a single intact DNA enough for detection. The PCR is an amplification procedure that is sequence specific. Here, sequence specific DNA probes are added to reactions considering reaction parameters necessary for the process.Through this, the target sequence is amplified until detectable amounts are obtained. However, further portion out must be done in order to avoid contamination, particularly contemporary ones. Contemporary contaminants are better preserved in the PCR. To manage this, blank extracts and zero-controls must be done for every extraction. In sum, controls are necessary to for the verification of the legitimacy of the results and in order to trace possible contaminations that are present (Kiesslich, n.d.).Zero-controls are PCR-reactions which do not contain the DNA being analyzed (Kiesslich, n.d.). They are blank extracts which contain everything that is required for the reaction used in the DNA-analysis such as solutions and buffers. In the uniform way as the source material, these controls undergo the same extraction steps.Much has been change by the discovery of DNA. In the past, archaeological investigations may be limited to the physical level. Today, it has reached the era when Archaeology intersects with Molecular Biology. There are still lots of evidences to discover. history is still filled with gaps. With the advent of Molecular Archaeology, strands may just be made and gaps may just be filled.ReferencesChristianson, B. (2007). Molecular Archaeology. Minnesota State University. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/archaeology/moleculararchaeology.html.Faerman, M., D. Filon, et al. (1995). Sex identification of archaeological human remains based on amplification of the X and Y amelogenin alleles. Gene, 167, (1-2) 327-32.Kiesslich, J. (n.d.). The emergent Field of Molecular Archaeology. Retrieved 23 OctoberSaiki, R. K., D. H. Gelfand, et al. (1988). Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science, 239, (4839) 487-91.Stern, B. (2001). Organic Residues in Egyptian Amphorae. University of Bradford. Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//www.brad.ac.uk/acad/archsci/depart/resgrp/molarch/egypt.html.The Advent of Molecular Archaeology. (2005). Retrieved 23 October 2007 from http//humanitieslab.stanford.edu/2/184.